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T. Popoviciu
Institutul de Calcul

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T. Popoviciu, Asupra unor ecuaţii funcţionale, Studii și cercetări științifice (Cluj), Seria I, tom. VI, nr. 34, pag. 37-49 (1955).

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Studii si Cercetari Matematice

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Academy of the Republic of S.R.

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On some functional equations

n+1n+1

f0​(x),F1​(x),…,fn​(x),f_{0}\left(x\right),F_{1}\left(x\right),\ldots,f_{n}\left(x\right),

It isIt is.

It isIt is can be foundn+1n+1 cand,and=0,1,…,c_{i},i=0,1,\ldots, HAVE∑and=0ncand​fand​(x)=0\sum_{i=0}^{n}c_{i}f_{i}\left(x\right)=0, whatever it isx∈It isx\in E.

It isIt is n+1n+1

V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1,x2,…,xn+1)=‖fj−1​(xj)‖and,j=1,2,…,n+1.V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}=\left\|f_{j-1}\left(x_{j}\right)\right\|_{i,j=1,2,\ldots,n+1}.

on the pointsx∈It is,and=1,2,…,n+1x\in E,i=1,2,\ldots,n+1 andand jj

V​(1,x,x2,…,xnx1,x2,…,xn+1)=V​(x1,x2,…,xn+1)V\binomial{1,x,x^{2},\ldots,x^{n}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}=V\left(x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}\right)

x1,x2,…,xn+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1},

[x1,x2,…,xn+1;f]=V​(1,x,…,xn−1,fx1,x2,…,xn+1)V​(x1,x2,…,xn+1)\left[x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1};f\right]=\frac{V\binomial{1,x,\ldots,x^{n-1},f}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}}{V\left(x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}\right)}

f​(x)f\left(x\right) x1,x2,…,xn+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}.

It isIt is

V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1,x2,…,xn+1)=0V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}=0

xand∈It is,and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i}\in E,i=1,2,\ldots,n+1.

Forn=0n=0 true fornn and forn+1n+1

fand​(x),and=0,1,…,n−1f_{i}\left(x\right),i=0,1,\ldots,n-1

existnnpuncture xand∈It is,and=1,2,…,nx_{i}\in E,i=1,2,\ldots,n,

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x1,x2,…,xn)≠0V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n}}\neq 0

But

V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1,x2,…,xn,x)=0V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f^{n}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n},x}=0

whateverx∈It isx\in E.

2. It isIt is It isIt is. n+1n+1puncturexand,and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1 It isIt is

V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1,x2,…,xn+1)≠0.V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}\neq 0.

the distinct points x1,x2,…,xn+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1} It isIt is. on the crowdIt isIt is.

any system ofn+1n+1 xand,and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1, n+1n+1 yand,and=1,2,…,n+1y_{i},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1

yy, xand,and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1.

3. It isIt is [A,b]\left[a,b\right].

how many pointsx1,x2,…,xn+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1} in order x1<x2<xn+1x_{1}<x_{2}<x_{n+1} find the points xand′,xand",and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i}^{\prime},x_{i}^{\prime\prime},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1 It isIt is

x1′<x2′<…<xn+1′,x1"<x2"<…<xn+1"x_{1}^{\prime}<x_{2}^{\prime}<\ldots<x_{n+1}^{\prime},\ x_{1}^{\prime\prime}<x_{2}^{\prime\prime}<\ldots<x_{n+1}^{\prime\prime}

and

V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1′,x2′,…,xn+1′)>0,V​(f0,f1,…,fnx1",x2",…,xn+1")≤0.V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x_{1}^{\prime},x_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,x_{n+1}^{\prime}}>0,\ V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x_{1}^{\prime\prime},x_{2}^{\prime\prime},\ldots,x_{n+1}^{\prime\prime}}\leq 0.

xand=λ​xand"+(1−λ)​xand′,and=1,2,…,n+1x_{i}=\lambda x_{i}^{\prime\prime}+\left(1-\lambda\right)x_{i}^{\prime},i=1,2,\ldots,n+1, λ\lambdaforλ∈[0,1]\lambda\in\left[0,1\right], λ=0\lambda=0,

λ=1\lambda=1So there is aλ,0<λ<1\lambda,0<\lambda<1 suchλ\lambda xandx_{i}

△h(x;f0,f1,…,fn)=V​(f0,f1,…,fnx,x+h,x+2​h,…,x+n​h)\bigtriangleup_{h}\left(x;f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}\right)=V\binomial{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n}}{x,x+h,x+2h,\ldots,x+nh}

xandx_{i} for anythingx,x+n​h∈[A,b]x,x+nh\in\left[a,b\right].

for the functions(n−2)\left(n-2\right)

f0​(x)\displaystyle f_{0}\left(x\right) =(1+x)​(2+x),f1​(x)=1+x,f2,−x​(1−x),x∈[−2−1]\displaystyle=\left(1+x\right)\left(2+x\right),f_{1}\left(x\right)=1+x,\ f_{2},-x\left(1-x\right),\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ x\in\left[-2-1\right]
f0​(x)\displaystyle f_{0}\left(x\right) =f1​(x)=f2​(x)=0,x∈[−1,1]\displaystyle=f_{1}\left(x\right)=f_{2}\left(x\right)=0,\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ x\in\left[-1,1\right]
f0​(x)\displaystyle f_{0}\left(x\right) =1−x,f1​(x)=−x​(1−x),f2​(x)=(1−x)​(2−x),x∈[1,2]\displaystyle=1-x,\ f_{1}\left(x\right)=-x\left(1-x\right),\ f_{2}\left(x\right)=\left(1-x\right)\left(2-x\right),\ \ \ \ x\in\left[1,2\right]

[−2,2]\left[-2,2\right] △h(x;f0,f1,f2)=0\bigtriangleup_{h}\left(x;f_{0},f_{1},f_{2}\right)=0, whatever it is−2≤x,x+2​h≤2-2\leq x,x+2h\leq 2.

However, the functionsf0​(x),f1​(x),f2​(x)f_{0}\left(x\right),f_{1}\left(x\right),f_{2}\left(x\right) [−2,2]\left[-2,2\right]

5.

fand​(x)=xand,and=0,1,…,n−1f_{i}\left(x\right)=x^{i}\ ,i=0,1,\ldots,n-1
1!​2!,…,(n−1)!​hn​(n−1)2​∑and=0n(−1)n−and​(nand)​fn​(x+and​h).1!2!,\ldots,\left(n-1\right)!h^{\frac{n\left(n-1\right)}{2}}\sum_{i=0}^{n}\left(-1\right)^{ni}\binomial{n}{i}f_{n}\left(x+ih\right).
∑and=0n(−1)n−and​(nand)​f​(x+and​h)=0,x,x+n​h∈[A,b]\sum_{i=0}^{n}\left(-1\right)^{ni}\binomial{n}{i}f\left(x+ih\right)=0,\ x,x+nh\in\left[a,b\right]

n−1n-1. f​(x)f\left(x\right) f​(x)f\left(x\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right].

on the interval [A,b]\left[a,b\right].

△h(f0,f1,…,fn−1,f)=0,x,x+n​h∈[A,b]\bigtriangleup_{h}\left(f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1},f\right)=0,\ \ x,x+nh\in\left[a,b\right]

6.

Let's considern+2n+2puncturex1,x2,…,xn+2x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+2} 2​n+12n+1

f0​(x1)f_{0}\left(x_{1}\right) f1​(x1)f_{1}\left(x_{1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{1}\right) f​(x1)f\left(x_{1}\right) f0​(x1)f_{0}\left(x_{1}\right) f1​(x1)f_{1}\left(x_{1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{1}\right)
f0​(x2)f_{0}\left(x_{2}\right) f1​(x2)f_{1}\left(x_{2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x2)f_{n-1}\left(x_{2}\right) f​(x2)f\left(x_{2}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
f0​(x3)f_{0}\left(x_{3}\right) f1​(x3)f_{1}\left(x_{3}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x3)f_{n-1}\left(x_{3}\right) f​(x3)f\left(x_{3}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
⋯\cdots ⋯\cdots
f0​(xand−1)f_{0}\left(x_{i-1}\right) f1​(xand−1)f_{1}\left(x_{i-1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand−1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i-1}\right) f​(xand−1)f\left(x_{i-1}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
f0​(xand)f_{0}\left(x_{i}\right) f1​(xand)f_{1}\left(x_{i}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i}\right) f​(xand)f\left(x_{i}\right) f0​(xand)f_{0}\left(x_{i}\right) f1​(xand)f_{1}\left(x_{i}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i}\right)
f0​(xand+1)f_{0}\left(x_{i+1}\right) f1​(xand+1)f_{1}\left(x_{i+1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand+1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i+1}\right) f​(xand+1)f\left(x_{i+1}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
f0​(xand+2)f_{0}\left(x_{i+2}\right) f1​(xand+2)f_{1}\left(x_{i+2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand+2)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i+2}\right) f​(xand+2)f\left(x_{i+2}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
⋯\cdots ⋯\cdots
f0​(xn+1)f_{0}\left(x_{n+1}\right) f1​(xn+1)f_{1}\left(x_{n+1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xn+1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{n+1}\right) f​(xn+1)f\left(x_{n+1}\right) 0 0 ⋯\cdots 0
f0​(xn+2)f_{0}\left(x_{n+2}\right) f1​(xn+2)f_{1}\left(x_{n+2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn​(xn+2)f_{n}\left(x_{n+2}\right) f​(xn+2)f\left(x_{n+2}\right) f0​(xn+2)f_{0}\left(x_{n+2}\right) f1​(xn+2)f_{1}\left(x_{n+2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xn+2)f_{n-1}\left(x_{n+2}\right)
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(x2)f_{0}\left(x_{2}\right) f1​(x2)f_{1}\left(x_{2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x2)f_{n-1}\left(x_{2}\right)
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(x3)f_{0}\left(x_{3}\right) f1​(x3)f_{1}\left(x_{3}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(x3)f_{n-1}\left(x_{3}\right)
⋯\cdots ⋯\cdots
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(x​it​and−1)f_{0}\left(xli-1\right) f1​(xand−1)f_{1}\left(x_{i-1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand−1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i-1}\right)
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(xand+1)f_{0}\left(x_{i+1}\right) f?​?​(xand+1)f_{??}\left(x_{i+1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand+1)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i+1}\right)
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(xand+2)f_{0}\left(x_{i+2}\right) f1​(xand+2)f_{1}\left(x_{i+2}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xand+2)f_{n-1}\left(x_{i+2}\right)
⋯\cdots ⋯\cdots
0 0 ⋯\cdots 0 0 f0​(xn+1)f_{0}\left(x_{n+1}\right) f1​(xn+1)f_{1}\left(x_{n+1}\right) ⋯\cdots fn−1​(xn+?​?​?)f_{n-1}\left(x_{n+???}\right)

2≤and≤n+12\leq i\leq n+1 and=2i=2andand=n+1i=n+1.

n+1n+1

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x2,x3,…,xn+1)​V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x1,x2,…,xand−1,xand+1,xand+2,…,xn+2)=\displaystyle V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{2},x_{3},\ldots,x_{n+1}}V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{i-1},x_{i+1},x_{i+2},\ldots,x_{n+2}}=
|\displaystyle| =V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x2,x3,…,xand−1,xand+1,xand+2,…,xn+2)​V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1,fx1,x2,…,xn+1)+\displaystyle=V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{2},x_{3},\ldots,x_{i-1},x_{i+1},x_{i+2},\ldots,x_{n+2}}V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1},f}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}+
+V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x1,x2,…,xand−1,xand+1,xand+2,…,x?​?​?+1)​V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1,fx2,x3,…,xn+2)\displaystyle+V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{i-1},x_{i+1},x_{i+2},\ldots,x_{???+1}}V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1},f}{x_{2},x_{3},\ldots,x_{n+2}}

and=2i=2 orand=n+1i=n+1.

(xn+2−x1)​[x1,x2,…,xand−1,xand+1,xand+2,…,xn+2;f]\displaystyle\left(x_{n+2}-x_{1}\right)\left[x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{i-1},x_{i+1},x_{i+2},\ldots,x_{n+2};f\right]
=(xand−x1)​[x1,x2,…,xn+1;f]+(xn+2−xand)​[x2,x3,…,xn+2;f].\displaystyle=\left(x_{i}-x_{1}\right)\left[x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1};f\right]+\left(x_{n+2}-x_{i}\right)\left[x_{2},x_{3},\ldots,x_{n+2};f\right].

7. finite x1,x2,…,xm​(m≥n+1)x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}\left(m\geq n+1\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right]

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1,fnxand,xand+1,…,xand+n)=0,and=1,2,…,m−nV\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1},f_{n}}{x_{i},x_{i+1},\ldots,x_{i+n}}=0,\ i=1,2,\ldots,m-n

f​(x)f\left(x\right)

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1,​fx1,x2,…,xn+1)=0V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1,}f}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}}=0

x1,x2,…,xn+1∈[A,b]x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n+1}\in\left[a,b\right]

pointsxx xR−xSx_{r}-x_{s}

group ofn+1n+1 RANGE[A,b]\left[a,b\right].

f​(x)f\left(x\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right], any group ofn+1n+1

[A,b]\left[a,b\right],

f​(x)=c0​f0​(x)+c1​f1​(x)+⋯+cn−1​fn−1​(x),f\left(x\right)=c_{0}f_{0}\left(x\right)+c_{1}f_{1}\left(x\right)+\cdots+c_{n-1}f_{n-1}\left(x\right),

wherecand,and=0,1,…,n−1c_{i},\ i=0,1,\ldots,n-1,

fornn\ x1,x2,…,xnx_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n} will variablexn+1=xx_{n+1}=x

1.

f0​(x)=my⁡x,f,(x)=Cart⁡xf_{0}\left(x\right)=\sin x,\ f,\ \left(x\right)=\cos x

[A,b]\left[a,b\right]where0≤A<b≤π,b−A<π=π0\leq a<b\leq\pi,b-a<\pi=\allowbreak\pi.

f​(x)−2​basket⁡f​(x+h)=f​(x+2​h)=0f\left(x\right)-2\cosh f\left(x+h\right)=f\left(x+2h\right)=0

c0​my⁡x+c1​Cart⁡xc_{0}\sin x+c_{1}\cos x.

2.

f0​(x)=1,f​(x)=my⁡x,f2​(x)=Cart⁡xf_{0}\left(x\right)=1,\ f\left(x\right)=\sin x,\ f_{2}\left(x\right)=\cos x

[A,b]\left[a,b\right] 0≤A<b≤2​π,b−A<2​π\leq a<b\leq 2\pi,\ b-a<2\pi.

f​(x)−f​(x+3​h)=(2​basket+1)​[f​(x+h)−f​(x+2​h)]f\left(x\right)-f\left(x+3h\right)=\left(2\cosh+1\right)\left[f\left(x+h\right)-f\left(x+2h\right)\right]

is therefore of the formc0+c1​my⁡x+c2​Cart⁡xc_{0}+c_{1}\sin x+c_{2}\cos x.

my⁡x,Cart⁡x,my⁡2​x,Cart⁡2​x,…,my⁡n​x,Cart⁡n​x\sin x,\cos x,\sin 2x,\cos 2x,\ldots,\sin nx,\cos nx

or

1,my⁡x,Cart⁡x,my⁡2​x,Cart⁡2​x,…,my⁡n​x,Cart⁡n​x.1,\sin x,\cos x,\sin 2x,\cos 2x,\ldots,\sin nx,\cos nx.

9. f​(x)f\left(x\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right] [A,b]\left[a,b\right]

|f​(x)|<M,x∈[A,b].\left|f\left(x\right)\right|<M,x\in\left[a,b\right].

function f​(x)f\left(x\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right]

x0x_{0} α1,α2,…,αn−1,n−1\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1},n-1 x0x_{0} [A,b]\left[a,b\right]

we

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−2α1,α2,…,αn−1,x0)=λ≠0.V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-2}}{\alpha_{1},\alpha_{2},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1},x_{0}}=\lambda\neq 0.

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x1,x2,…,xA​?​?​?)V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{a\ ???}} x1,x2,…,xnx_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{n}, ε\varepsilon μ<|λ|\mu<\left|\lambda\right|,,{}^{\text{,}} δ\delta x∈(x0−δ,x0+δ),αand′∈(αand+δ,)and=1,2,…,n−1x\in\left(x_{0}-\delta,x_{0}+\delta\right),\alpha_{i}^{\prime}\in\left(\alpha_{i}+\delta,\right)i=1,2,\ldots,n-1

|V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)|>μ\displaystyle\left|V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x,\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}\right|>\mu
|f​(x0)|​|V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x0,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)−V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)|<μ​ε2\displaystyle\left|f\left(x_{0}\right)\right|\left|V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{0},\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}-V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x,\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}\right|<\frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2}
|V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x,x0,α1′,α´2,…,αand−1′​αand+1,αand+2",…,αn−1′)|<μ​ε2​(n−1)​M,and=1,2,…,n−1.\displaystyle\left|V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x,x_{0},\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\acute{\alpha}_{2},\ldots,\alpha_{i-1}^{\prime}\alpha_{i+1},\alpha_{i+2}^{\prime\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}\right|<\frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2\left(n-1\right)M},i=1,2,\ldots,n-1.

x∈(x0−δ,x0+δ)x\in\left(x_{0}-\delta,x_{0}+\delta\right) αand′\alpha_{i}^{\prime} α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′,x0,x\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime},x_{0},x

V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1,fα1′,α2′,…,αn−1′,x0,x)=0V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1},f}{\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime},x_{0},x}=0

from which we deduce

[f​(x0)−f​(x)]​V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x0,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)=\displaystyle\left[f\left(x_{0}\right)-f\left(x\right)\right]V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{0},\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}=
=f​(x0)​[V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x0,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)−V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x,α1′,α2′,…,αn−1′)]+\displaystyle=f\left(x_{0}\right)\left[V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x_{0},\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}-V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x,\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}\right]+
+∑and=1n−1(−1)and​f​(αand′)​V​(f0,f1,…,fn−1x,x0,α1′,α2′,…,αand−1′,αand+1′,αand+2′,…,αn−1′)\displaystyle+\sum_{i=1}^{n-1}\left(-1\right)^{i}f\left(\alpha_{i}^{\prime}\right)V\binom{f_{0},f_{1},\ldots,f_{n-1}}{x,x_{0},\alpha_{1}^{\prime},\alpha_{2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{i-1}^{\prime},\alpha_{i+1}^{\prime},\alpha_{i+2}^{\prime},\ldots,\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}}
|f​(x0)−f​(x)|<1μ⋅μ​ε2+(n−1)​Mμ⋅μ​ε2​(n−1)​M=ε\left|f\left(x_{0}\right)-f\left(x\right)\right|<\frac{1}{\mu}\cdot\frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2}+\frac{\left(n-1\right)M}{\mu}\cdot\frac{\mu\varepsilon}{2\left(n-1\right)M}=\varepsilon

|x0−x|<δ\left|x_{0}-x\right|<\delta, f​(x)f\left(x\right) x0x_{0}.

on the interval[A,b]\left[a,b\right], where cand,and=0,1,…,n−1c_{i},i=0,1,\ldots,n-1

f​(x)f\left(x\right) [A,b]\left[a,b\right]. f​(x)f\left(x\right)

10. F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) xxandyy f​(x)​g​(x)f\left(x\right)g\left(x\right), xx

yy.

F​(x,y)=∑and=1mfand​(x)​gand​(y).F\left(x,y\right)=\sum_{i=1}^{m}f_{i}\left(x\right)g_{i}\left(y\right).

IfF​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right)

‖∂1+jF∂xand​∂yf‖and′,j=0,1,…,m=0\left\|\frac{\partial^{1+j}F}{\partial x^{i}\partial y^{f}}\right\|_{i^{\prime},j=0,1,\ldots,m}=0

F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right).

11. F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) on a crowd It isEof points(x,y)\left(x,y\right) that xx

It isxE_{x}andIt isyE_{y}).

We will say thatmm degree m1>mm_{1}>m.

f1​(x),f2​(x),…,jf_{1}\left(x\right),f_{2}\left(x\right),\ldots,j

It isxE_{x}

g1​(y),g2​(y),…,g​(y)g_{1}\left(y\right),g_{2}\left(y\right),\ldots,g\left(y\right)

It isyE_{y}.

functions onlyxx only byyyeffectively0.

is of the actual degreemm, R<mr<m.

find a numberRr mm Rr functionsφ1​(x),φ2​(x),…,φR\varphi_{1}\left(x\right),\varphi_{2}\left(x\right),\ldots,\varphi_{r}

fand​(x)=cand,1​φ1​(x)+xand,2​φ2​(x)+⋯+cand,R​φR​(x),and=1,2,…,mf_{i}\left(x\right)=c_{i,1}\varphi_{1}\left(x\right)+x_{i,2}\varphi_{2}\left(x\right)+\cdots+c_{i,r}\varphi_{r}\left(x\right),\ \ i=1,2,\ldots,m

wherecand,jc_{i,j}

F​(x,y)=∑and=1Rφand​(x)​ψand​(y)F\left(x,y\right)=\sum_{i=1}^{r}\varphi_{i}\left(x\right)\psi_{i}\left(y\right)

where

ψand​(y)=c1,and​g1​(y)+⋯+cm,and​gm​(y),and=1,2,…,R.\psi_{i}\left(y\right)=c_{1,i}g_{1}\left(y\right)+\cdots+c_{m,i}g_{m}\left(y\right),\ i=1,2,\ldots,r.

12

D​(x1,x2,…,xm+1;Fy1,y2,…,ym+1)=‖F​(xand,yand)‖and,j=1,2,…,m+1D\left(\begin{array}[c]{cc}x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}&\\ &;F\\ y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{m+1}&\end{array}\right)=\left\|F\left(x_{i},y_{i}\right)\right\|_{i,j=1,2,\ldots,m+1}

wherex1,x2,…,xm+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}arem+1m+1 It isxE_{x}andy1,y2,…,ym+1​m+1y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{m+1}m+1 It isyE_{y}.

D​(x1,x2,…,xm+1y1,y2,…,ym+1;F)=0D\left(\begin{tabular}[c]{l}$x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}$\\ \\ $y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{m+1}$\end{tabular};F\right)=0

onIt isE.

Any functionF​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) It isE mm.

function F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) R,1≤R≤m,Rr,1\leq r\leq m,rpuncturex1,x2,…,x∈It isxx_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x\in E_{x}andR\ rpuncturey1,y2,…,yR∈It isyy_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{r}\in E_{y}

D=D​(x1,x2,…,xR;Fy1,y2,…,yR)≠0D=D\left(\begin{array}[c]{cc}x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{r}&\\ &;F\\ y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{r}&\end{array}\right)\neq 0

and

D​(x1,x2,…,xR,xy1,y2,…,yR,y;F)=0D\left(\begin{array}[c]{c}x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{r},x\\ \\ y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{r},y\end{array};F\right)=0

whatever(x,y)∈It is\left(x,y\right)\in E. F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right)

IfRr effective Rr. Aand,jA_{i,j} DD.

F​(x,y)=∑and=1Rfand​(x)​gand​(y)F\left(x,y\right)=\sum_{i=1}^{r}f_{i}\left(x\right)g_{i}\left(y\right)

where, for example

fand​(x)=F​(x,yand),gand​(y)=1D​∑S=1R(−1)S+R−and​F​(xS,y)​AS,and,and=1,2,…,Rf_{i}\left(x\right)=F\left(x,y_{i}\right),g_{i}\left(y\right)=\frac{1}{D}\sum_{s=1}^{r}\left(-1\right)^{s+r-i}F\left(x_{s},y\right)A_{s,i},\ i=1,2,\ldots,r

fand​(x)f_{i}\left(x\right) gand​(y)g_{i}\left(y\right)

IfIt isxE_{x} m+1m+1 It isyE_{y} m+1m+1 any functionF​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) It isE mm.

13. A quasi-polynomial mm mand<mm_{i}<m.

mm m−1m-1.

D​(x1,x2,…,xmy1,y2,…,ym​j​?​?​?;F)=V​(f1,f2,…,fmx1,x2,…,xm)​V​(g1,g2,…,gmy1,y2,…,ym).D\left(\begin{array}[c]{c}x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}\\ \\ y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{mj???}\end{array};F\right)=V\binom{f_{1},f_{2},\ldots,f_{m}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}}V\binom{g_{1},g_{2},\ldots,g_{m}}{y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{m}}.

pointsxandx_{i} yandy_{i}

Actual condition mm It isxE_{x} It isyE_{y}.

14. It isE R(A≤x≤b,c≤y≤d)R\left(a\leq x\leq b,c\leq y\leq d\right).

We can consider functionsF​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right)

D​(x1,x2,…,xmy1,y2,…,yn;F)≠0D\left(\begin{tabular}[c]{l}$x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}$\\ \\ $y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{n}$\end{tabular};F\right)\neq 0

x1,x2,…,xm∈[A,b]x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}\in\left[a,b\right] y1,y2,…,y∈[c,d]y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y\in\left[c,d\right]

F​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) withxx yy x1<x2<…<xm,y1<y2<…<ymx_{1}<x_{2}<\ldots<x_{m},y_{1}<y_{2}<\ldots<y_{m},

we note that fory1,and=1,2,…,my_{1},i=1,2,\ldots,m and forxand,and=1,2,…,mx_{i},i=1,2,\ldots,m

D​(x,x+h,x+2​h,…,x+m​hy,y+k,y+2​k,…,y+m​k;F)=0D\left(\begin{array}[c]{c}x,x+h,x+2h,\ldots,x+mh\\ \\ y,y+k,y+2k,\ldots,y+mk\end{array};F\right)=0

wherex,y,h,kx,y,h,k that A≤x,x+m​h≤b,c≤y,y+m​k≤da\leq x,x+mh\leq b,c\leq y,y+mk\leq dandmm

If the functionF​(x,y)F\left(x,y\right) x,yx,y onRR mm.

yyandkk,

D​(x1,x2,…,xm+1y,y+k,…,y+mk;F)=0D\left(\begin{tabular}[c]{l}$x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}$\\ \\ $y,y+k,\ldots,y+mk$\end{tabular};F\right)=0

whateverxand∈[A,b],and=1,2,…,m+1x_{i}\in\left[a,b\right],i=1,2,\ldots,m+1.

WEfand​(x)=F​(x,y+and​k),and=1,2,…,m,f​(x)=F​(x,y)f_{i}\left(x\right)=F\left(x,y+ik\right),\ i=1,2,\ldots,m,\ f\left(x\right)=F\left(x,y\right). the pointsx1,x2,…,xm+1x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}and we put fand​(y)=F​(xand,y),and=1,2,…,m,f​(y)=F​(x,y)f_{i}\left(y\right)=F\left(x_{i},y\right),\ i=1,2,\ldots,m,f\left(y\right)=F\left(x,y\right),

D​(x1,x2,…,xm+1y1,y2,…,ym+1;F)=0D\left(\begin{array}[c]{c}x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m+1}\\ \\ y_{1},y_{2},\ldots,y_{m+1}\end{array};F\right)=0

whateverxand∈[A,b],yand∈[c,d],and=1,2,…,m+1x_{i}\in\left[a,b\right],y_{i}\in\left[c,d\right],i=1,2,\ldots,m+1.

15. symmetricalxxandyy.

fand​(x)=Aand,1​g1​(x)+Aand,2​g2​(x)+⋯+Aand,m​gm​(x),and=1,2,…,mf_{i}\left(x\right)=a_{i,1}g_{1}\left(x\right)+a_{i,2}g_{2}\left(x\right)+\cdots+a_{i,m}g_{m}\left(x\right),\ i=1,2,\ldots,m

whereAand,ja_{i,j} Aand,j=Aj,anda_{i,j}=a_{j,i}.

linear setit ise(so thatIt isx=It isy=it isE_{x}=E_{y}=e) mm

(with A​and​j=A​j,anda\,ij=a\,j,i)

independent onit ise. mm x1,x2,…,xm∈it isx_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}\in e

V∗=V​(g1,g1,…,gmx1,x2,…,xm)≠0.V^{\ast}=V\binom{g_{1},g_{1},\ldots,g_{m}}{x_{1},x_{2},\ldots,x_{m}}\neq 0.

allows us to write

∑and=1mfand​(x)​gand​(xk)=∑and=12mfand​(xk)​gand​(x),k=1,2,…,m\sum_{i=1}^{m}f_{i}\left(x\right)g_{i}\left(x_{k}\right)=\sum_{i=12}^{m}f_{i}\left(x_{k}\right)g_{i}\left(x\right),\ k=1,2,\ldots,m

fand​(x)f_{i}\left(x\right) we show thatAand,j=Aj,anda_{i,j}=a_{j,i}.

∑and≠j1,2,…,m(Aand,j−Aj,and)​[gand​(x)​gand​(y)−gand​(x)​gj​(y)]=0.\sum_{i\neq j}^{1,2,\ldots,m}\left(a_{i,j}-a_{j,i}\right)\left[g_{i}\left(x\right)g_{i}\left(y\right)-g_{i}\left(x\right)g_{j}\left(y\right)\right]=0.

From himxxandyy xxx_{x}andxitx_{l} (m2)\binom{m}{2} (m2)\binom{m}{2} Aand,j−Aj,anda_{i,j}-a_{j,i}.

of the determinantV∗V^{\ast}. is a power of V∗V^{\ast}( V∗m+1V^{\ast m+1})..\

It results thatAand,j−Aj,and=0,and,j=1,2,…,ma_{i,j}-a_{j,i}=0,\ i,j=1,2,\ldots,m,

factorAand,ja_{i,j} 0effectivelymm, with the determinant‖Aand,j‖\left\|a_{i,j}\right\| of0.

effective degreeR<mr<m amounts ofRr only byxx yy.

of two variablesx,yx,y, φ1​(x),φ2​(x),…,φR​(x),φ1​(y),φ2​(y),…,φR​(y)\varphi_{1}\left(x\right),\varphi_{2}\left(x\right),\ldots,\varphi_{r}\left(x\right),\varphi_{1}\left(y\right),\varphi_{2}\left(y\right),\ldots,\varphi_{r}\left(y\right), whereRr φand​(x)\varphi_{i}\left(x\right)

References

  • [1] LJ Magnus, ”Über die Relaitonen der Functionsen welche der GleichungF1​y​φ1​x+F2​y​φ2​x+⋯+Fn​y​φn​x=F1​x​φ1​y+F2​x​φ2​y+⋯+Fn​x​φn​yF_{1}y\varphi_{1}x+F_{2}y\varphi_{2}x+\cdots+F_{n}y\varphi_{n}x=F_{1}x\varphi_{1}y+F_{2}x\varphi_{2}y+\cdots+F_{n}x\varphi_{n}ygenugthung",Journalf.die Reine u,angew.Math.,5, 365-373(1830).
  • [2] Tiberiu Popoviciu, "On bounded solutions and measurable solutions of certain functional equations", Mathematica, 14, 47-106 (1938).
  • [3] C. Stephanos, "Sur une catégorie d'équations équationelles" Rendic. Jack. Mat. Palermo, 18, 360-363 (1904).
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